Cruel Acts and War Crimes during British rule in India

I believe that this is the topic to be written very very late,but its worth writing how the British manage to rule India for 335 years(1612-1947) and about the cruel deeds of the British rule in India.However I'm publishing the know acts of British Empire in India,there are so many hidden facts which was never put to light.But we would had put each and everything into light, If we have the same sort of media we have right now back then.

How East India Company came to picture & Arrival of European traders

Indian trade links with Europe started in through sea route only after the arrival of Vasco da Gama in Calicut, India on May 20, 1498. The Portuguese had traded in Goa as early as 1510, and later founded three other colonies on the west coast in Diu, Bassein, and Mangalore. In 1601 the East India Company was chartered, and the English began their first inroads into the Indian Ocean. At first they were little interested in India, but rather, like the Portuguese and Dutch before them, with the Spice Islands. But the English were unable to dislodge the Dutch from Spice Islands. In 1610, the British chased away a Portuguese naval squadron, and the East India Company created its own outpost at Surat. This small outpost marked the beginning of a remarkable presence that would last over 300 years and eventually dominate the entire subcontinent. In 1612 British established a trading post in Gujarat. As a result of English disappointments with dislodging the Dutch from the Spice Islands, they turned instead to India. In 1614 Sir Thomas Roe was instructed by James I to visit the court of Jahangir, the Mughal emperor of Hindustan. Sir Thomas was to arrange a commercial treaty and to secure for the East India Company sites for commercial agencies, -"factories" as they were called. Sir Thomas was successful in getting permission from Jahangir for setting up factories. East India Company set up factories at Ahmedabad, Broach and Agra. In 1640 East India Company established an outpost at Madras. In 1661 the company obtained Bombay from Charles II and converted it to a flourishing center of trade by 1668. English settlements rose in Orissa and Bengal. In 1633, in the Mahanadi delta of Hariharpur at Balasore in Orissa, factories were set up. In 1650 Gabriel Boughton an employee of the Company obtained a license for trade in Bengal. An English factory was set up in 1651 at Hugli.  In 1690 Job Charnock established a factory. In 1698 the factory was fortified and called Fort William. The villages of Sutanati, Kalikata and Gobindpore were developed into a single area called Calcutta. Calcutta became a trading center for East India Company. Once in India, the British began to compete with the Portuguese, the Dutch, and the French. Through a combination of outright combat and deft alliances with local princes, the East India Company gained control of all European trade in India by 1769. In 1672 the French established themselves at Pondicherry and stage was set for a rivalry between the British and French for control of Indian trade.

Strategies used by them to Set foot On India

Disunity among Indian princely states.

India was more a collection of warring princely states, at loggerheads with each other. The British sucessfully used this to play off one state against another. Add to it there was no dearth of people willing to betray the kingdom for a few pieces of silver. Robert Clive succeeded at Plassey, because Mir Jaffar was willing to betray his master Siraj-Ud-Daulah in lie of being the Nawab. Mir Jaffar himself was betrayed by Mir Qasim later on.Tipu Sultan one of the most redoubtable fighters against the British rule, was finally defeated, as the Marathas, King of Mysore, Nizam of Hyderabad all joined hands with the British.

Superiority over other colonial powers.
The other colonial powers in India competing for the share of resources were France,Portugal,Denmark, Holland. Of the 4, Denmark and Holland could never really be serious competitors to the British, they had their own trading posts, scattered around, but were never a serious threat. Portugal focussed primarily on the Western coast, Goa, parts of Kerala, Karnataka, and this left the British with vast swathes of unoccupied territory. That left France as the major contender to Britian in the race for colonialism. The British Army was more well equipped, more professional, more disciplined compared to the French army, suffering from indiscipline and corruption. This made the British win key battles all over the East Coast, as they effectively grabbed control.

Doctrine of Lapse.

One of the most effective tactics, the British used to take over most of India. Instead of waging an all out war against some of the princely states, they signed a treaty with them, where in if the ruling king died without a heir, the East India company could take over that. And that is how Satara became one of the first states to end up under British rule. And that was also the main reason for the conflict in Jhansi.

Subsidiary alliance was also an effective instrument. According to this alliance, the kingdom which signs the treaty will have to maintain the following rules:

The British agreed to maintain a permanent and fixed subsidiary force within the territory of their ally.
In return, they didn't take money but took over a part of the territory of the ally.
A British officer called "resident" was placed at the court of the ruler.{he could interfere in the internal matters of the kingdom}
The ally could not maintain any relation with any other ruler without the approval of the British.{so,when the rulers wanted to revolt against the British they are alone.}
The Indian rulers felt a false sense of security but in reality they were losing their independence. On the other hand the Britishers maintained large forces at the expenses of the Indian rulers and also increase their area of influence. Some states brought under control through this policy are Hyderabad, Tanjore, Awadh, etc.

At the end of it all, the British had the advantage of better manpower, were militarily more powerful and stronger, and add to it they had some very canny strategists too. And the disunity among Indian princely states, their constant warring with each other, just added to the advantage.

 

Looting Of India

First, I will try to summarize the nature of loot.

War Indemnity

In the first phase of the rule of the British, war indemnity was the primary source of loot. Whenever the opponent loses war, the Britisher's would plunder their territory as war indemnity, and administer them including collection of taxes.

Subsidiary Alliance and Doctrine of Lapse

This was a very clever policy in which the princely states would provide money(precious stones, territory, etc.) to the Britishers in return for the protection of their territories. This helped Britishers grow a large army at the cost of the princely states. The treaty was also such that if they were not able to pay money, the state has to cede a part of the territory and many states did cede their territory(to protect the territory ). In Doctrine of Lapse, if the current king doesn't have a hire to run the administration, that territory would be annexed by the British.

Heavy taxation of Indian Goods in Britain

Indian handmade cotton was very popular in British and other parts of the world, realizing this, the British raised import duty as high as 400% to some goods which resulted in making the Indian goods very costly and eventually forcing the traders and the artists to quit and look for other jobs.

Industrial Revolution

British Industries needed raw materials which were abundant in India. Britishers reduced the Indian's from manufacturers to just producer of raw materials due to the tax policies. When the final goods were made, they needed a market which India was. So, they sucked in the raw materials at a fraction of cost and supplied the mill-made goods back. The hand-made goods from India were not able to compete with the mill made goods from England and eventually everyone were wiped out. Indian Industries were also not promoted as they have to cross the bureaucratic hurdles to setup their industries.
At that stage the employment opportunities were also minimal and if one has to join in government service, one has to study in England which was too costly. At most times, even the highest paid Indian could not go higher than the lowest paid Englishmen such was the discrimination against Indians.

Land Revenue System

After  the Battle of Buxar, East India Company got rights to collect taxes,  and if the first two policies were a direct attack on the  princes/kingdoms, this one was a direct attack on common people. They  established three systems - Permanent Settlement, Ryotwari System and  Mahalwari System whereever these systems were found suitable. Indian  population was predominantly agricultural depending on lands for their  income. In the permanent settlement system zamindars who were given the  responsibility to collect taxes and give a fixed tax to the company. So  if the zamindars collected more tax it could benefit them as they have  to pay only a fixed amount to the British, and they started collecting  more taxes. In Ryotwari system, the land was made saleable and if the  farmers fails to pay taxes, their land were ceased. In Mahalwari system,  where the cultivators have to provide a % of their yield which was very  high.

All the taxes collected were not contributed to the development of India, they were used for
* Home charges - Expenditure incurred in England on behalf of India,
* To fund Military and civil service. Indian Civil Service was the highest paid service and the most sought after at that point.
* To pay Dividend to the shareholders of East India Company.

And even before 1857, most of the wealth was drained away - Princes had to live on pensions from the company, farmers had to give away their lands if they failed to pay taxes, traders were suppressed due to heavy taxes, industrialists had to live with discriminative laws and there were no alternate employement opportunites. So, what remained for people? Nothing.

One the Englishman had told - The system acts like a sponge - sucking water from Ganges and draining it in Thames.

Just A small calculation of British Loots

3.9 Million Pounds paid by Mir Jafar to East India Company 1757
230000 pounds per annum from Mir Jafar's Successor
Annual takling 1932900 pounds from Bengal Bihar and Orissa
Annual revenue from Bihar alone: 680000 pounds
Famine 1770 : 10 million dead, directly due to British policies
Annual revenue from Bengal from 1793: 2.68 million pounds
Famines in 1783, 1792, 1807, 1813, 1823, 1834 and 1854
Famines in 1877, 1878, 1889, 1892, 1897, 1900 : 15 million dead. Note how the incidence of famine has increased with the passage of colonial rule...
Revenue from Allahabad: Pounds 1682306 per annum circa 1800s
Land Tax: 50% of produce
Maratha area: annual revenue 1,500,000 pounds per annum  circa 1800s
Indian Debt: pounds 51,000,000 in 1857
Indian Debt: pounds 97,000,000 in 1862
Indian Debt pounds 200,000,000 in 1901
44 Million sterling annual outflow from India to Britain. Multiply this figure alone by around 150 - that is approximate 6600 Million - 6.6 Billion. Now compound by 8% the number comes to 37 Trillion pounds - or nearly 73 Trillion Dollars. India's external debt as on March 2011 was 345.8 Billion Dollars.(This last bit - the compounding and the extrapolation of annual revenues over 150 years is my guesstimate; to equal it out I have used a factor 112 years)
Just one years revenue earnings to the British amount to 243 Billion Sterling- nearly 480 Billion Dollars even when I compound it by just 8% more than our total external debt .Calculate the sum looted by British in 300+ Years.Because of which 1 British pound is now 95 Indian Rupees

This was not the end

 

The Amritsar Massacre

The Jallianwala Bagh massacre, also known as the Amritsar massacre, was a seminal event in the British rule of India. On 13 April 1919, a crowd of non-violent protesters, along with Baishakhi pilgrims, had gathered in the Jallianwala Bagh garden in Amritsar, Punjab to protest against the arrest of two leaders [Dr.Satyapal and Dr.Saifuddin] despite a curfew which had been recently declared. On the orders of Brigadier-General Reginald Dyer, the army fired on the crowd for ten minutes, directing their bullets largely towards the few open gates through which people were trying to run out. The figures released by the British government were 370 dead and 1200 wounded. Other sources place the number dead at well over 1000. This "brutality stunned the entire nation", resulting in a "wrenching loss of faith" of the general public in the intentions of Britain. The ineffective inquiry and the initial accolades for Dyer by the House of Lords fuelled widespread anger, leading to the Non-cooperation Movement of 1920–22.

 

On Sunday, 13 April 1919, Dyer was convinced of a major insurrection and he banned all meetings, however this notice was not widely disseminated. That was the day of Baisakhi, the main Sikh festival, and many villagers had gathered in the Bagh. On hearing that a meeting had assembled at Jallianwala Bagh, Dyer went with fifty Gurkha riflemen to a raised bank and ordered them to shoot at the crowd. Dyer continued the firing for about ten minutes, until the ammunition supply was almost exhausted; Dyer stated that 1,650 rounds had been fired, a number which seems to have been derived by counting empty cartridge cases picked up by the troops.Official British Indian sources gave a figure of 379 identified dead,with approximately 1,100 wounded. The casualty number estimated by the Indian National Congress was more than 1,500, with approximately 1,000 dead. Over 100 women and children who looked for safety in a well drowned. Rifle fire tore the rest to shreds. When the news reached London, Parliament was so shocked it recalled the man who ordered the massacre, Brigadier Reginald Dyer. In a depressing twist of fate, the British public labeled him a hero and raised £26,000 (around $900,000 in today’s money) for “the man who saved India.” He died peacefully, convinced right to the end that his mindless slaughter had been morally justifiable.

 

The Partitioning Of India

As a servant of the British Empire in 1947, Cyril Radcliffe has the distinction of killing more people with the stroke of a pen than anyone else in history. With almost zero time to prepare himself, Radcliffe was tasked with drawing the border between India and newly-created Pakistan that would split the subcontinent forever along religious lines. It was a tricky task, one that had the potential to cause massive displacement and ethnic violence even if handled carefully. Radcliffe, on the other hand, was asked to make some of the most-important decisions during the course of a single lunch.The result was a border that made no ethnic or geographical sense. Terrified of being caught on the wrong side, Hindus in modern Pakistan and Muslims in modern India upped sticks and ran. The result was 30 million people trying desperately to escape one country or the other, a situation that quickly spiralled into mind-numbing violence. Gangs of armed Muslims held up border trains and slaughtered any non-Muslims onboard. Hindu mobs chased and battered Muslim children to death in broad daylight. Houses were ransacked, villages burnt, and half a million people killed. It was a ridiculous waste of life, one that could have been largely avoided simply by giving the unfortunate Cyril Radcliffe enough time to do his job properly.

 

The Bengal Famine

The Bengal famine of 1943 struck the Bengal Province of pre-partition British India (present-day West Bengal, Odisha, Bihar and Bangladesh) during World War II following the Japanese occupation of Burma. Approximately 3 million people died due to famine. Generally the estimates are between 1.5 and 4 million,considering death due to starvation, malnutrition and disease, out of Bengal's 60.3 million population. Half of the victims died from disease after food became available in December 1943. Generally it is thought that there was serious decrease in food production during that time which is coupled with Bengal's continuing export of grain. However according to Amartya Sen there was no significant decrease in food production in 1943 (in fact food production was higher compared to 1941). As in previous Bengal famines, the highest mortality was not in previously very poor groups, but among artisans and small traders whose income vanished when people spent all they had on food and did not employ cobblers, carpenters, etc. The famine also caused major economic and social disruption, ruining millions of families.

But in 2010 a new book came out claiming the lack of famine relief was deliberate and that the deaths of those millions had been intentionally engineered by one man: Winston Churchill.According to the book, Churchill refused to divert supplies away from already well-supplied British troops, saying the war effort wouldn’t allow it. This in itself wouldn’t be too damning, but at the same time he allegedly blocked American and Canadian ships from delivering aid to India either. Nor would he allow the Indians to help themselves: the colonial government forbade the country from using its own ships or currency reserves to help the starving masses. Meanwhile, London pushed up the price of grain with hugely inflated purchases, making it unaffordable for the dying and destitute. Most-chillingly of all, when the government of Delhi telegrammed to tell him people were dying, Churchill allegedly only replied to ask why Gandhi hadn’t died yet. If all this is true—and documents support it—then Winston Churchill, the British war hero who stood up to the Nazis, may well have starved to death as many innocent people as Stalin did in the Ukrainian genocide. Could the man who held out against Hitler really be capable of such an atrocity? Judging by the rest of this list, it wouldn’t be surprising.

 

Source:

Wikipedia

Quora

Madhusree Mukerjee’s book [Churchill’s Secret War: The British Empire and the Ravaging of India during World War II, New York, Basic Books, 2010]

Chinese New Year: 2015

Chinese New Year is the longest and most important celebration in the Chinese calendar. The Chinese year 4713 begins on Feb. 19, 2015.Chinese New Year is centuries old and gains significance because of several myths and traditions. Traditionally, the festival was a time to honour deities as well as ancestors. Chinese New Year is celebrated in countries and territories with significant Chinese populations, including Mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau, Taiwan, Singapore,Thailand, Indonesia, Malaysia, Mauritius, and the Philippines. Chinese New Year is considered a major holiday for the Chinese and has had influence on the lunar new year celebrations of its geographic neighbours.

Chinese months are reckoned by the lunar calendar, with each month beginning on the darkest day. New Year festivities traditionally start on the first day of the month and continue until the fifteenth, when the moon is brightest. In China, people may take weeks of holiday from work to prepare for and celebrate the New Year.

A Charming New Year

Legend has it that in ancient times, Buddha asked all the animals to meet him on Chinese New Year. Twelve came, and Buddha named a year after each one. He announced that the people born in each animal's year would have some of that animal's personality. Those born in sheep years are often artistic, charming, sensitive, and sweet. It is known as the most creative sign in the Chinese zodiac. Jane Austen, Boris Becker, Jamie Foxx, Mel Gibson, Michelangelo, Mark Twain, Rudolph Valentino, Barbara Walters, Bruce Willis, and Orville Wright were born in the year of the sheep.

Fireworks and Family Feasts

 

Chinese New Year celebrations people wear red clothes, decorate with poems on red paper, and give children "lucky money" in red envelopes. Red symbolizes fire, which according to legend can drive away bad luck. The fireworks that shower the festivities are rooted in a similar ancient custom. Long ago, people in China lit bamboo stalks, believing that the crackling flames would frighten evil spirits.

 

The Lantern Festival
In China, the New Year is a time of family reunion. Family members gather at each other's homes for visits and shared meals, most significantly a feast on New Year's Eve. In the United States, however, many early Chinese immigrants arrived without their families, and found a sense of community through neighbourhood associations instead. Today, many Chinese-American neighbourhood associations host banquets and other New Year events.

The lantern festival is held on the fifteenth day of the first lunar month. Some of the lanterns may be works of art, painted with birds, animals, flowers, zodiac signs, and scenes from legend and history. People hang glowing lanterns in temples, and carry lanterns to an evening parade under the light of the full moon.

In many areas the highlight of the lantern festival is the dragon dance. The dragon—which might stretch a hundred feet long—is typically made of silk, paper, and bamboo. Traditionally the dragon is held aloft by young men who dance as they guide the colourful beast through the streets. In the United States, where the New Year is celebrated with a shortened schedule, the dragon dance always takes place on a weekend. In addition, many Chinese-American communities have added American parade elements such as marching bands and floats.

Traditional food on New Year

A reunion dinner, named as "Nian Ye Fan", is held on New Year's Eve during which family members gather for celebration. The venue will usually be in or near the home of the most senior member of the family. The New Year's Eve dinner is very large and sumptuous and traditionally includes dishes of meat (namely, pork and chicken) and fish. Most reunion dinners also feature a communal hot pot as it is believed to signify the coming together of the family members for the meal. Most reunion dinners (particularly in the Southern regions) also prominently feature specialty meats (e.g. wax-cured meats like duck and Chinese sausage) and seafood (e.g. lobster and abalone) that are usually reserved for this and other special occasions during the remainder of the year. In most areas, fish is included, but not eaten completely (and the remainder is stored overnight), as the Chinese phrase "may there be surpluses every year" sounds the same as "let there be fish every year." Eight individual dishes are served to reflect the belief of good fortune associated with the number. If in the previous year a death was experienced in the family, seven dishes are served.

Red packets for the immediate family are sometimes distributed during the reunion dinner. These packets often contain money in certain numbers that reflect good luck and honorability. Several foods are consumed to usher in wealth, happiness, and good fortune. Several of the Chinese food names are homophones for words that also mean good things.

 

Like many other New Year dishes, certain ingredients also take special precedence over others as these ingredients also has similar sounding names with prosperity, good luck, or even counting money.

Hoia Baciu Forest – World’s Most Haunted Forest

The Hoia Forest is a forest situated to the west of the city of , near the open-air section of the Ethnographic Museum of Transylvania. The forest is used as a common recreation destination. In recent years a biking park has been added to the forest, along with areas for other sports such as paintball, airsoft and archery. It is commonly believed that paranormal phenomena take place in the forest, and this reputation attracts yoga practitioners, Wiccans and paranormal enthusiasts.

Hoia Forest Aerial View

The oldest Neolithic settlement in Romania (believed to have been established around 6500 BCE) belonging to the Starčevo–Kőrös–Criş culture was discovered at the north of Valea Lungă. Tombs and houses from this settlement were uncovered between 1960 and 1994.

The Hoia Forest is famous worldwide for its alleged frequent and varied paranormal phenomena. In 1968, a citizen of Cluj photographed a UFO in Poiana Rotundă (The Round Meadow). These photos were judged to be among the few of their kind which were supposedly "authentic", according to assessments.

Beginning in 1960, Alexandru Sift, a professor of biology, has studied the phenomena of light and magnetism which occur in the forest. This study yielded a rich archive of photographs of the phenomena, which was lost several days after Sift's death in 1993. The few remaining photographs were published in 1995 in the book Fenomenele de la Pădure Hoia-Baciu by Adrian Pătruț, professor of chemistry at Babeș-Bolyai University in Cluj-Napoca and a friend of Sift. Pătruț continued Sift's research, and claims that the strange phenomena have a scientific basis which has yet to be sufficiently understood. However, news of the phenomena has brought about many urban legends in Cluj, which attract many visitors to the forest who hope to capture such a phenomenon themselves.Visitors to the forest often report intense feelings of anxiety and the feeling of being constantly watched. Moreover, the local vegetation is somehow bizarre in appearance, like something out of a make-believe story with strangely shaped trees, and unexplained charring on tree stumps and branches.The forest was named after a shepherd that disappeared in the area with a flock of two hundred sheep. Most people who live near the forest are afraid to enter it due to the stories and legends that have been handed down. They believe that those who visit the site will never return back home. Many of the locals who have been brave enough to venture into the forest complained of physical harm, including rashes, nausea, vomiting, migraines, burns, scratches, anxiety, and other unusual sensations.

 
People who have entered the forest to this day get inexplicable rashes or they begin to feel very light-headed and ill. Moreover, the electronic devices are known to malfunction when introduced into the area. Some paranormal investigators have associated these strange malfunctions with supernatural activity.

The Hoia-Baciu Forest ( World’s Most Haunted Forest ) has a reputation for paranormal and unexplained activity and people have witnessed numerous strange events on the land. The most common phenomenon includes the sudden appearance of mysterious orbs of light. People also report hearing disembodied female voices breaking the heavy silence, giggling and even apparitions, There are many cases of people reportedly being scratched. All these things happen with no reasonable explanation.

Some people believe that the forest is a gateway to another dimension. Within the dark interior of Hoia-Baciu Forest ( World’s Most Haunted Forest ) , people have been known to disappear, strange lights have been seen, the wind seems to speak,. Several stories tell of people entering the forest and experiencing missing time. Some have known to be missing for quite some time with no recollection of how they had spent that time.One such story focuses on a 5-year-old girl who wandered into the woods and got lost. The story goes that she emerged from the forest 5 years later, wearing the same untarnished clothes that she wore on the day she disappeared with no memory of where had happened in that interval of time.

Another story of the The Hoia-Baciu Forest ( World’s Most Haunted Forest ) has been telling about the strange paranormal phenomena which have been recorded and researched for nearly 50 years. The woods are thought to be notoriously haunted by the Romanian peasants who were murdered here. It is believed that the souls of these tormented ghosts are trapped within the wooded confines of Hoia-Baciu Forest ( World’s Most Haunted Forest ) and that these entities are enraged by their predicament. Visions of these tormented spirits are sometimes observed by terrified travelers. Pairs of haunting, observing green eyes and a heavy black fog have been observed here. Many people report a feeling of being watched as they travel near the forest’s edge.

Nanmadol, Pohnpei Federated States of Micronesia

Where is Pohnpei?

Pohnpei  is the name of an island of the Senyavin Islands which are part of the larger Caroline Islands group. It belongs to Pohnpei State, one of the four states in the Federated States of Micronesia (FSM). Palikir, the FSM's capital, is located on Pohnpei Island. Pohnpei Island is the largest, highest, most populous, and most developed single island in the FSM. The islanders of Pohnpei have a reputation as being the most welcoming of outsiders among residents of the island group.

Pohnpei is roughly square in shape; it is well watered and hilly (rising to Dolohmwar, 2,595 feet [791 metres] above sea level) and is surrounded by a barrier reef with many small islets. Its fertile soil and heavy rainfall result in luxuriant tropical foliage, and the island has been called the “garden of Micronesia.” It has mangrove swamps along its coasts and rainforests in the central hilly area. Situated near Pohnpei are the low-lying coral atolls Oroluk, Pakin, and Ant to the west; Ngatik, Nukuoro, and Kapingamarangi to the southwest; and Mokil and Pingelap to the east. Most of the coral atolls are wooded and support coconut palms. The people of the island and its surrounding atolls, with the exception of the Polynesian inhabitants of Nukuoro and Kapingamarangi, are Micronesians.

Though Pohnpei was much visited by whalers and traders, it was not until the mid-19th century that Christian missionaries established schools there. Spanish administration was followed by German possession after 1898. The Germans promoted the production of copra. After World War I, Japan was given mandate over Micronesia under the League of Nations, and Pohnpei was made one of the administrative centres. During World War II Pohnpei’s Japanese garrison was bypassed by the Allies and isolated prior to its surrender. The island was part of the United Nations Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands from 1947 until the dissolution of the Trust Territory in 1986.

Pohnpei yields a wide variety of tropical products, including copra, breadfruit, taro, trochus shells, and cacao. Rice is grown, pigs and poultry are raised, and fish are caught. The main coastal villages are Kolonia, Madolenihmw, and Rohnkiti. Pohnpei has an international airport and is the site of the College of Micronesia-FSM. Palikir, near Kolonia, is the capital of the Federated States of Micronesia. Total land area 129 square miles (334.1 square km). Pop. (2010) island, 36,196.

What is Nanmadol?

In the lagoon on the eastern coast of Pohnpei is Nan Madol, or Nanmadol, a group of 92 prehistoric artificial platform islands built in the lagoon and surrounded by man-made canals. Ruins of a town and ceremonial centre of the early 2nd millennium ce include tombs of former kings, belonging, according to tradition, to the Sau Deleur dynasty that once ruled the whole island.The name Nan Madol means "spaces between" and is a reference to the canals that crisscross the ruins. The original name was Soun Nan-leng (Reef of Heaven), according to Gene Ashby in his book Pohnpei, An Island Argosy.It is often called the "Venice of the Pacific".

 

Nan Madol was the ceremonial and political seat of the Saudeleur dynasty, which united Pohnpei's estimated 25,000 people until about 1628. Set apart between the main island of Pohnpei and Temwen Island, it was a scene of human activity as early as the first or second century CE. By the 8th or 9th century islet construction had started, but the distinctive megalithic architecture was probably not begun until perhaps the 12th or early 13th century.

Little can be verified about the megalithic construction. Pohnpeian tradition claims that the builders of the Lelu complex on Kosrae (likewise composed of huge stone buildings) migrated to Pohnpei, where they used their skills and experience to build the even more impressive Nan Madol complex. However, this is unlikely: radiocarbon dating indicates that Nan Madol predates Lelu. Like Lelu, one major purpose of constructing a separate city was to insulate the nobility from the common people.

 

 

According to Pohnpeian legend, Nan Madol was constructed by twin sorcerers Olisihpa and Olosohpa from the mythical Western Katau, or Kanamwayso. The brothers arrived in a large canoe seeking a place to build an altar so that they could worship Nahnisohn Sahpw, the god of agriculture. After several false starts, the two brothers successfully built an altar off Temwen Island, where they performed their rituals. In legend, these brothers levitated the huge stones with the aid of a flying dragon. When Olisihpa died of old age, Olosohpa became the first Saudeleur. Olosohpa married a local woman and sired twelve generations, producing sixteen other Saudeleur rulers of the Dipwilap ("Great") clan. The founders of the dynasty ruled kindly, though their successors placed ever increasing demands on their subjects. Their reign ended with the invasion by Isokelekel, who also resided at Nan Madol, though his successors abandoned the site.

Today Nan Madol forms an archaeological district covering more than 18 km² and includes the stone architecture built up on a coral reef flat along the shore of Temwen Island, several other artificial islets, and the adjacent Pohnpei main island coastline. The site core with its stone walls encloses an area approximately 1.5 km long by 0.5 km wide and it contains nearly 100 artificial islets—stone and coral fill platforms—bordered by tidal canals.

 

Carbon dating indicates that the construction of Nan Madol began around 1200 CE, while excavations show that the area may have been occupied as early as 200 BCE. Some probable quarry sites around the island have been identified, but the exact origin of the stones of Nan Madol is yet undetermined. None of the proposed quarry sites exist in Madolenihmw, meaning that the stones must have been transported to their current location.

It has been suggested that they might have been floated via raft from the quarry, and a short dive between the island and the quarries shows a trail of dropped stones. However, no one has successfully demonstrated or explained the process. Some modern Pohnpeians believe the stones were flown to the island by use of black magic.In 1985 the ruins of Nan Madol were declared a National Historical Landmark. Currently, a greater effort is being made to preserve them.

 

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Longyou caves, China

Longyou Caves are a series of large artificial caverns located at Phoenix Hill, near the village of Shiyan Beicun on the Lan River in Longyou County, Quzhou prefecture, Zhejiang province, China.

In June, 1992, a villager named Wu Anai, decided to pump the water out in one of the locally known caves revealing the first of many man-made caves in the region.  After 17 days pumping, enough water had been removed to reveal the cave including several carved stelae, thus confirming his idea that they were not natural reservoirs at all, but rather man-made. The floor of the grotto occupies more than 2,000 square meters, with the tallest point of the cave exceeding 30 meters. The four steles of cave 1 are symmetrically distributed. Following this discovery, he continued to pump out another four caves only to find that they all bore the same markings on the walls and ceilings.They are considered by Chinese to be the 'Ninth Wonder of the Ancient World'

 

How were they constructed?

A rough estimation of the workload involved in building these five caves is awe-inspiring. The quantity of rock that would have been removed in the overall excavation of the grottoes is estimated to be nearly 1,000,000 cubic meters. Taking into account the average digging rate per day per person, scientists have calculated that it would take 1,000 people working day and night for six years to complete.  These calculations are based purely on hard labour, but what they haven’t taken into account is the incredible care and precision of the sculptors, meaning that the actual workload would far surpass the theoretical estimation.  As for how they were constructed and what tools were used, it is still unknown. No tools have been found in the area, and, as we will explore later, scientists still don’t know how they achieved such symmetry, precision, and similarity between the different caves.

 No traces of construction Despite their size and the effort involved in creating them, so far no trace of their construction or even their existence has been located in the historic record.  Although the overall excavation involved almost a million cubic metres of stone, there is no archaeological evidence revealing where that quantity of stone went, and no evidence of the work. Moreover, there is not a single historic document that refers to them, which is highly unusual considering the sheer scale of the project.  Their origin is a complete and utter mystery. 

How did the caves remain so well preserved?
One of the most interesting and challenging questions is how the caves have been able to keep their structural integrity for more than 2000 years.  There are no signs of collapse, no piles of rubble, and no damage despite the fact that in some areas the walls are only 50 centimetres thick.  Over the centuries, the area has gone through numerous floods, calamities and wars, the mountains have changed their appearance and exposed stones have been weathered, but inside the caves, the form, patterns and markings are still clear and precise – it is as though they were built yesterday.

How did the builders work in the dark?
Due to the great depths of the caves, some areas at the bottom, which are not exposed to the opening above, are pitch-black. Yet even those dark areas are decorated with thousands of parallel lines on the walls, columns, and ceiling.  So how did the ancient people work in the dark?   According to Jia Gang, a Tongji University professor specializing in civil engineering: "There should be lamps, because the cave's mouth is very small, and the sunbeam could only shine in the cave at a certain angle during a certain period of time. As one goes deeper into the cave, the light becomes dimmer. At the cave's bottom, which is usually dozen of meters from the mouth, one could hardly see anything." However, this was at least two millennia ago and nothing that could have been used for lighting has been found.

Were the caves meant to be connected?
All of the 36 grottoes are distributed across an area of only one square kilometre. Considering such a high density, one cannot help asking whether some grottoes were meant to be connected.  What would be the purpose of making so many separate caves in such a tight area without connecting them? In many areas, the walls between the caves are very thin, only 50 centimetres, but they were never linked so it appears they were intentionally kept apart.  What’s more, many of the caves are almost identical to each other.

 

Who built them? Nobody has any idea who built the caves. Some scientists have claimed that it was not possible or logical for such as mammoth job to have been undertaken by regular village people. Only the emperor and the leaders could have organised such a huge project, like the construction of the Great Wall, which was built to defend against invasion from the outside. But if it was commissioned by an Emperor, why are there no historical records of its construction?

BuzzNet Tags: China,caves

How to learn to Move-On

When relationship blossoms it creates memory that keeps you happy, but not all relationships last long some break us ,wear us out and even makes us vexed of living.This article is special for those people who want to move on.

Rule 1: Never go back to someone who break you.

Yeah,right people most of the time do this mistake, sometimes you get a chance to see you guy or girl but most of the will least respect you ,even worst you can find them hanging with someone else they might even treat you bad.You don't need this so never ever go see them.

Rule 2: Move out of things that remind You about your Ex

They maybe gifts ,pictures , anything that reminds you of them you make think that it may bring good memories but it wont help you in way but will make you down so dispose all of it or move it to store room.

Rule 3: Cry over it and burst your feelings out

Bring out all your emotions you have try to get control over it.It Maybe difficult task but you have to do.See in mirror talk with yourself ,tell yourself that  “THERE IS SOMEONE SPECIAL WAITING FOR YOU ” Tell yourself they aren't worth it!

Rule 4:Don't dump yourself in Bad Habits

There is say “No one can help yourself then that of yourself”.If you start drinking or do drugs it wont help you instead join in some classes such as Yoga or go Jog or workout in someway even playing some sports will lift up your mood.Its believed that exercise can improve your mood.

Rule 5: Talk with your friends

There is always a residue of your relationship left in your heart always you can share with most trusted friends you have they will surely be able to help you out.Spend time with them hangout go party or go for movie.

Rule 6: Focus on yourself

Change yourself, make over change yourself change your hair style ,the way you look dress smartly everything of this will make you feel better and become more confident about yourself.

10 Deadly Weapons found in Hindu Mythology

Hindu mythology is made out of numerous traditional narrative in which the most famous of them are Ramanya , the Mahabharata and the Tamil sangam .In all of these narrations its explains about the Gods,Devans, Demon,Sages,Kingdoms and Wars .Right now we are going to talk more on top 10 War Weaponry(Astra) used by the Gods and Devans used to defeat the Demons or Evil force and these weaponries(Astra)  can cause of Annihilation of the enemies and they description  in the ancient scripts tell us that they are extremely dangerous and some of them can be used once in a person's life time.

 

1.Sudarshana Chakra

Its a spinning disc with 108 serrated edges seen in the hands of Lord vishnu.This was the Gift from Lord Shiva to Lord Vishnu and its been said to be made by architect of gods, Vishvakarma.It was made out of the Sun dust , scraps took from the Trident of Shiva .Sudarshana Chakra is considered to be the most powerful weapon in Hindu mythology.When it pursued sage Durvasa,neither Lord Brahama nor Lord Shiva could stop it.Sudarshana Chakra was used to cut the corpse of Sati, the consort of Shiva into 51 pieces after she gave up her life by throwing herself in a yagna (fire sacrifice) of her father Daksha. It is said that Shiva, in grief, carried around her lifeless body and was inconsolable. The 51 parts of the goddess' body were then tossed about in different parts of the Indian subcontinent and came to be known as "Shakti Peethas".

 

2.Trishula

Trishula is simply a trident which in the hands of the lord Shiva or goddess Shakthi .Unlike the Poisedan’s Trident where it can only controls oceans , A Trishula has way more powerful features lord Shiva has used it to destroy  many numbers of demon we can possibly imagine of and control anything.A Trishula  can nullify any supernatural weapons and once used it can never be stopped or controlled unless its Stopped by the Lord Shiva himself .Its said of beheaded lord Ganesha who is the most powerful diety of Hindu mythology . Lord Ganesha was put back together by Lord Shiva himself

 

3.Pashupatastra

This the one of the most deadliest weapon ever known to man kind  next to Trishula  .Its said that this weapon must never to be used against lesser enemies or by lesser warriors, the Pashupatastra is capable of destroying creation and vanquishing all beings.In the Mahabharata Arjuna obtained this weapon from Lord Shiva but did not use it because this weapon would destroy the entire world, if used against a mortal enemy. Arjun didn't used this astra to slay Jayadaratha. It is said that the mantra to obtain and discharge the astra is sealed by Shiva to prevent its misuse in the Kali Yuga. It is said that no one in the three worlds can resist lord Shiva when he shows his prowess.Apart from Arjun,no other warrior possessed this weapon.When released, the weapon summons several monsters and a huge spirit which personifies the weapon. Sometimes it can cause a catastrophic explosion similar to a hydrogen bomb. Each time the weapon is summoned, its head is never the same This weapon had to be obtained from Shiva directly. Infallible, though can be nullified only by any other Astra of Lord Shiva or by an Astra of Lord Vishnu.

 

4.Brahmadanda

Its described as a mythical equivalent of modern day atomic weapons, nuclear and thermonuclear bombs.

Its described in the Mahabharata, is a weapon which is said to be a single projectile charged with all the power of the universe. It is considered equivalent to modern day atom bomb. In Hindu Puranas after a Brahmastra is used it looks more of the nuclear fallout similarly to that of Hiroshima, the event is described as “An incandescent column of smoke and flame as bright as ten thousand suns rose in all its splendour: it was an unknown weapon, an iron thunderbolt, a gigantic messenger of death, which reduced to ashes the entire race of the Vrishnis and the Andhakas the corpses were so burned as to be unrecognizable. Their hair and nails fell out; pottery broke without apparent cause, and the birds turned white. After a few hours all foodstuffs were infected…to escape from this fire the soldiers threw themselves in streams to wash themselves and their equipment.” This weapon was used by Arjun in Kurukshetra war and was said to be neutralised by Karna.This weapon can be obtained only through Lord Brahma or  from a Guru who knows it and it could only be used once in a day. The user would have to display immense amounts of mental concentration.

 

5.Brahmashira

Brahmashirsha astra is the evolution of the Brahmadanda , 4 times stronger than the Brahmadanda . It is similar to modern day hydrogen bombs or thermonuclear (fusion) bombs. In the Mahabharata, it is said that the weapon would manifest with the four heads of Lord Brahma as its tip. This astra can be invoked by using sacred mantras onto any object, even to a blade of grass.

In the Mahabharata, it is explained that when this weapon is invoked "it blazes up with terrible flames within a huge sphere of fire. Numerous peals of thunder were heard; thousands of meteors fell; and all living creatures became filled with great dread. The entire welkin seemed to be filled with noise and assumed a terrible aspect with those flames of fire. The whole earth with her mountains and waters and trees, trembled." When it strikes an area it will cause complete destruction and nothing will grow, not even a blade of grass for next 12 years. It will not rain for 12 years in that area and everything including metal or earth would be poisoned.

6.Narayanastra

Its the most personal weapon of lord Vishnu it turn fires a powerful tirade of millions of deadly missiles simultaneously. The intensity of the shower increases with increase in resistance. The only way of defense towards this missile, is to show total submission before the missiles hit. This in turn will cause this weapon to stop and spare the target.Ashwathama,uses this weapons against the Panadavas in the battle of Kurukshetra to escape from this warriors need to drop their weapons and lie down on the ground, so that they all surrender completely to the power of the weapon. It was also said that this weapon can be used only once in a war and if one tries to use it twice, then it would devour the user's own army.

7.Bhargavastra

Parsurama is owner of this astra and he provided this powerful weapon to Karna.This astra possesses Parashurama's skill in archery. Infallible. It brings a shower of much more powerful weapons than the Indrastra and could cause total destruction of a planet if not retracted.Even though Arjuna claimed Bhargava Weapon couldnt be baffled,yet Arjuna had managed to neutralise Karna's Bhargava weapon by his own Brahmastra.This happened in section 89 of Karna Parva.Arjuna launched Brahmastra on Karna's Bhargavastra after waiting for a long time since Brahmastra could only be used if other weapons fails to nullify the opponent's weapon.If Bhargava weapon was not neutralised,it would have consumed the entire Pandava Army but thanks to Arjuna's Brahmastra,it didnt happen.

 

8.Vajrayudha

Vajrayudha is  more like the Hammer of Thor that is said to set struck with bolts of lightning on the enemies on the larger scales and this  weapon made from the bone of sage Dadhichi.  According to myth, Indra, the king of the deva was once driven out of devaloka (Heaven)by an asura named Vritra. The asura was the recipient of a boon whereby he could not be killed by any weapon that was known till the date of his receiving the boon and additionally that no weapon made of wood or metal could harm him .So this asura (Demon) steals all the water of the world and leaves the entire planet to die in thrist .Indra seeks the help of lord vishnu and Vishnu revealed to Indra that only the weapon made from the bones of the sage Dadhichi would defeat Vritra. Dadhichi is then said to have given up his life by the art of yoga after which the gods fashioned the vajrayudha from his spine .

 

9.Twashtar

Tvaṣṭṛ is a solar deity in the epic of Mahabharata and the Harivaṃsa. He is mentioned as the son of Kasyapa and Aditi, and is said to have made the three worlds with pieces of the Sun god Surya.When used against a group of opponents (such as an army), would cause them to mistake each other for enemies and fight each other.

10.Devastra

Devastra is another name for Divyastra which means a divine weapon.Agneya Astra is connected to the Fire God Agni,it may be similar to a packet of inflammatory material that is attached to the tip of an arrow. 2. Varunastra is connect to the rain God Varuna,may be a packet of water that can drench the fire of the above astra 3. Vayavya Astra is connected to the Air God Vayu, it may be a packet of compressed air that will spread the fire created by the Agneya stra .